the ratio B/L, where B is the width of the reef and L the length of the incoming wave [53,54]. Values in brackets indicate 95% confidence intervals. These losses reduce coastal resilience, as well as our ability to recover and adapt to climate change and other human-caused threats. The top five renewable options are solar, wind (on and offshore), geothermal, biomass, and water generation (hydro, tidal and wave generation). Yes Field measurements of % wave height reduction versus non-dimensional parameter, hv/h in salt-marshes (n = 8). When evaluating restoration projects for coastal protection, it would be useful to follow monitoring and evaluation procedures set out within established coastal engineering frameworks. The addition of these benefits, over and above their coastal protection value should make these natural approaches more appealing to coastal managers and decision-makers [34]. Yet, these vital areas are at risk as rising populations and growing urbanization prompt the significant loss and damage of coastal habitats — including saltmarshes, mangroves, coral reefs and shellfish reefs. Studies that did not report data on either costs or benefits were also excluded. In the cost comparisons we look for structures that are equivalent to marshes and mangroves in function–i.e. Unit restoration costs are lowest for marshes and mangroves, and coral and oyster reefs show higher, and more variable, costs (Table 1). We are interested in general conclusions about the parameters that influence wave reduction across multiple habitats and physical conditions. Humans derive many tangible and intangible benefits from coastal areas, providing essential components for social and economic development especially of less developed coastal states and island states. Measures governments should take to enhance coastal resilience include: Local coastal communities, as well as indigenous peoples and artisanal fishers, often rely on coastal resources to support their livelihoods. May inflate property values and prices of goods and services. Guidance for risk management authorities on sustainable development in relation to their flood and coastal erosion risk management functions (Defra, 2011) Guidance on how to ensure that schemes include sustainable development in their outcomes and the value derived from this. This is done by: a) analysing field measurements of wave reduction within coastal habitats and the parameters that may drive variability in this function; and b) mapping and combining information from these field measurements with information on nearby nature-based defence projects, to compare their costs with hard structures that will provide the same level of wave reduction. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Sustainable Development. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. observed and secondary–i.e. It is neither a "green" policy nor a "development at any cost" policy. For pairing the project sites with field measurements, thirteen unique pairs were identified that occur a) at close proximity; b) in similar coastal setting, e.g. Though seawalls are a common substitute for mangrove and marsh habitats [20,31], these are often located at the shoreline and, in addition to blocking waves, also protect against flooding from high water levels. The data for the wave reduction analyses are all obtained from field observations of wave heights and hydrological variables. Join now. No, Is the Subject Area "Mangrove swamps" applicable to this article? Continue to shift institutional biases that favor traditional grey infrastructure while increasing financial instruments to encourage blue or hybrid infrastructure. All costs are reported on a per-m2 basis, and use total project costs for the cost comparison analyses. While there are a number of studies analysing the physical aspects of coastal protection by coastal habitats, there is very little information to date that combines this knowledge with information on restoration projects, to assess the performance and viability of these projects. Table 1 summarises the costs, coastal protection benefits, objectives and exposure of fifty-two nature-based defence projects in coral reef, oyster reef, mangrove, and salt-marsh habitats. 1000 word essay about "benefits and cost if coastal sustainable development". The definition of sustainable development has provided a big step forward. There is hence great interest in identifying effective, and cost effective solutions that help conserve habitats and protect coastlines [10,11]. Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice, The World Bank, Washington, DC, United States of America, Affiliation Impacts of Deep Horizon 2010 oil spill cost 62 billion USD to British Petroleum (USA Today, 2016), and the cost of oil spills following shipwreck of oil tankers, such as the Prestige at the Spanish and Portuguese coasts in 2002, were estimated in billion dollars (Loureiro et al. A small but growing number of field observations, laboratory experiments and numerical models suggest that reefs and wetlands can act as buffers against extreme waves and water levels [8,43,44,45,46], though the observed data for extreme events is scant. Various coastal management strategies are employed, each coming with a number of advantages and disadvantages. The costs of climate change on people and the economy are clear. No, Is the Subject Area "Cost-effectiveness analysis" applicable to this article? The benefits and downsides of building into the sea. Unit for Marine and Coastal Systems, Deltares / Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, Affiliation Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: SN MWB IJL JNS. Habitat effectiveness is influenced by: a) the ratios of wave height-to-water depth and habitat width-to-wavelength in coral reefs; and b) the ratio of vegetation height-to-water depth in salt-marshes. In the Asia-Pacific region, the Developing Member Countries of the Asian Development Bank will need to invest an estimated $26 trillion in infrastructure from 2016-2030 or $1.7 trillion per year to maintain growth momentum, eradicate poverty and respond to climate change mitigation and adaptation needs. Other coastal protection benefits include savings in damages during storm events, reductions in erosion and reductions in the costs of engineering for coastal protection, reflected, in a few cases, by positive benefit-cost ratios (e.g. For instance, the slope of a coral reef can influence variations in wave reduction over that reef [38] and hence, its effectiveness as a nature-based defence. Coastal Development. Percentage wave height reduction versus a) relative wave height and b) relative width in coral reefs. However, when analysing extreme value measurements, it will be necessary to include analyses of variances to assess the effect on wave reduction. In this and upcoming articles, we’ll examine renewable energy options and make a cost-benefit analysis of our economy from the present through 2050. Plot (b) shown for the blue region in inset. [12]. also see ). Wrote the paper: SN MWB IJL BvW BGR NP JCI GML JNS KBC. Biodiversity underpins all fishing and aquaculture activities, as Circles represent NbDs and lines represent submerged breakwaters cost-curves in both panels. B ecause sustainable development relies on newer technologies and materials that cost more to produce, the overall costs are often more than that of traditional construction. As a result, they could face the greatest impacts from climate change and disasters. These results provide insights on where and how coastal habitats and nature-based defence projects may be viable and cost effective, and also, on the key parameters that should be assessed when designing these projects. Almost all the studies provide information on habitat width, and most measurements in reefs also provide information on reef depth. It is important to note that coastal habitats are usually one of several structural, nature-based and non-structural measures for coastal protection [32]. If not planned, sited, and built carefully, infrastructure can undermine its intended development benefits and have substantial environmental and social costs. Examples of nature-based defence projects are growing rapidly in number, but much better reporting of effectiveness and cost effectiveness is necessary, for better understanding of their viability. Yes https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735, Editor: Maura (Gee) Geraldine Chapman, University of Sydney, AUSTRALIA, Received: January 11, 2016; Accepted: April 18, 2016; Published: May 2, 2016. Recognizing coastal communities’ resource users and stewards, and include the benefits they derive in the valuing and accounting of the ocean economy. The average effect size was measured in terms of the log response ratio of wave height reduction due to the habitat. This paper integrates analyses of (a) natural defences with information from (b) nature-based defence projects, to address these gaps and improve understanding of how and where coastal habitats may be viable for coastal protection. Basemap image is the intellectual property of Esri and is reprinted from Esri under a CC BY license with permission from Esri and its licensors, all rights reserved. Such evaluation typically involves a before-after comparison of the coastal hazard at the site. restoration projects aimed at coastal protection; yet, there is no synthetic information on what kinds of projects are effective and cost effective for this purpose. West Bay Coastal Defences • Date of completion: Oct 2019 • Cost: £6.3m • Location: West Bay, Dorset West Bay is a small Dorset community in Lyme Bay, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Jurassic Coast. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.s004. In many instances the degradation of coastal habitats can result in a decrease in coastal protection and increase risk of coastal flooding [4,5]. Habitat width is found not to be a sufficient indicator of cost effectiveness. Under baseline assumptions, decarbonization would yield $41 billion in net benefits to Costa Rica between 2020 and 2050, using a 5 percent discount rate. Analyzed the data: SN MWB BGR BvW IJL. By shifting traditional infrastructure (known as “hard” or “grey” and made with concrete or steel) to blue infrastructure (made with natural/semi-natural approaches that mimic natural coastal areas), governments can increase resilience to changing climate conditions, support sustainable development of local communities and minimize the loss of ecosystem services. The analyses of costs and benefits of nature-based defence projects were done for fifty-two restoration projects in coral reefs, oyster reefs, salt-marshes and mangroves, that were specifically targeted at coastal protection. Oceans, seas and coastal areas form an integrated and essential component of the Earth’s ecosystem and are critical to sustainable development. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication. According to the EUROSION study (Doody et al. The influence of bathymetry on wave height reduction was not accounted for, except where the study reported measurements from adjacent transects with and without the habitat. habitat. There is great interest in the restoration and conservation of coastal habitats for protection from flooding and erosion. In vegetated habitats, the height, geometry and shoot/stem density of the habitat, have all been shown to affect wave reduction in flume studies and models [55,56,57]. Using Eqs [1] and [2], This interlinked relationship means that local communities are often environmental stewards, using their traditional and local knowledge to increase their resilience and help them manage crises. For instance, wave reduction in coral reefs is mainly influenced by: (i) the relative wave height, i.e. CBD Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 states: By 2020, at least 17% of terrestrial and inland water, and 10% of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for … A replacement cost ratio for each NbD based on the cost of the replacement breakwater, Cstruc and the cost of the NbD, CNbD was then calculated: upland and wetland habitats, development in coastal areas further degrades the coastal ecosystem. The restoration project data are a mix of primary–i.e. decision-making processes (for example, coastal zoning, development planning, and disaster risk management) and the SEEA. The paper also synthesises information on the benefits of restoration projects for coastal protection. We were unable to find projects that reported specific comparisons to coastal structures or other measures of effectiveness (e.g., reduction of waves, erosion rates or flood volumes). Yes On the other hand, the net-benefits of adaptation are put at up to €4.2 billion. The number of independent studies analysed is indicated in brackets. Cost reporting in the project dataset is highly variable: of the 52 projects, fourteen do not report any costs, seventeen report total restoration costs, nine report costs on a per-m2 basis, nine on a per-hectare basis, two as per-metre coastline length and one as per-kilometre coastline length (S3 Table). We only searched for projects that were targeted at coastal protection and reported sufficient information on costs and habitat characteristics for further analyses (see S1 Methods, S3 Table). reports, assessments, surveys, etc.) The cross-shore width of habitat and the degree of wave height reduction are also indicated for each project. Cost reporting by projects is highly variable (see Methods). We also gratefully acknowledge support from the Lyda Hill Foundation, a Pew Fellowship in Marine Conservation to MWB, and the World Bank WAVES program. Commercial fisheries economic analysis includes: As with any hard engineering structure, information on nature-based defence project failures–i.e. To change this trajectory, a new paper commissioned by the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy proposes a new way forward with four opportunities for action to ensure sustainable and resilient coastal zones. These are increasingly driven by global conventions and their funding mechanisms, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the green Adaptation Fund (AF), as well as the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) and lending from the World Bank. Coastal development linked to human settlements, industry, aquaculture, and infrastructure can cause severe impacts on near shore ecosystems, particularly coral reefs. • For both habitats, the key biophysical characteristics that provide coastal protection benefits Colours indicate habitat groups in both panels. This is in line with findings from [21] and [23]. The Goal has ten targets to be achieved by 2030. The ocean and coastal zones under South Africa’s jurisdiction can ... economic costs of current sand mining are considered, Together with their ability to keep pace with sea-level rise [27] this suggests that nature-based defences can become increasingly viable on sheltered coastlines. 10 G Street NE Suite 800Washington, DC 20002, USA, Phone +1 (202) 729-7600Fax +1 (202) 729-7610, Collaboration on Nature-Based Solutions is Key to Resilient City Infrastructure, Leveraging the Ocean's Carbon Removal Potential, Using the Ocean As a Tool for Global Economic Recovery, Forests and Wetlands Are Water Infrastructure. the ratio H/h where h is the depth of the reef and H the wave height; and (ii) the relative width, i.e. On average, coastal habitats reduce wave heights between 35% and 71%. Is the Subject Area "Coral reefs" applicable to this article? 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